I. Introduction

Looking back on history, the Roman Empire had significantly impacted the Western world, paving the way for the cultural development in Europe. It directed the Western world's legislative, linguistic, architectural, and social development. The proverb “All roads lead to Rome” describes the power of the empire, and shows the people’s reverence for this empire, acknowledging its influence.

One of the representative architectures—baths—served for the daily entertainment of the Romans. With the influence of the Roman royalty, Roman citizens gathered in the baths for social interactions and various activities. They felt relaxed, enjoying the properties they obtained from nearby countries and tribes. Many additional services were available around the baths, such as libraries and gymnasiums as additional forms of entertainments. With thousands of years of evolution, the Roman baths gradually evolved as bath centers, sharing the same physical function as Roman baths did, but these newer versions have smaller social impact and on a smaller scale.

Similarly, in the Far East, ancient China had created remarkable impacts. Chinese citizens initiated the cultural circle, which spread across Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia. As one of the key elements of the Chinese culture circle, tea culture has greatly embodied folk devotion. People began to establish small restaurants which emerged in China with the encouragement of industrial and commercial activities. People gathered in teahouses to drink tea and socialize. The teahouse also provided additional services to serve customers, such as offering cooked food and organizing plays. Passing down from the Tang dynasty, the Chinese teahouse had evolved into the modern teahouse, with some changes in social functions.

There are similarities and differences between Chinese teahouses and Roman baths. Both structures were the same in providing the same services to each customer, with some of the auxiliary enjoyments provided in these spaces. Nevertheless, the Roman baths were operated by the government, while the Chinese teahouses were operated by the common folk. There were also differences in the scales and design styles, based on cultural differences.

II. Roman Baths

i. Structure Explanation

Before designing the baths, the Romans first examined the places that are suitable for baths since the living environment in ancient Rome was greatly influenced by the local climate. The location of the baths usually indicated the warmest place in the city. To avoid the cold air being blown into the baths, the rooms rarely face north and northeast (Vitruvius). Thus, the caldarium and tepidarium normally face southwest (Vitruvius).

As one of the well-known baths in the Roman Empire, the bath of Caracalla represented the highest standard of baths at that time. Built in the third century, the bath of Caracalla embodies the ideal structure of Roman baths. Thus, this particular bath can accurately represent the typical Roman bath and is going to be the main example that will be explored in this paper.

Figure 2.1.1 Layout of Caracalla

The Baths of Caracalla usually involved the proportion of . It was mainly based on aesthetic considerations. The Romans made some interpretations of aesthetics regarding the ratio of the square, which has the ratio between the side of the square and the diagonal. For instance, the outer dimension of the frigidarium and palestrae are mainly  (DeLaine 81). The widths of palestrae have lengths of  feet. The same dimension was also used in the frigidarium. By the favor of the dimension, the Romans applied the lengths of palestrae with the dimension of  feet (DeLaine 83).

Fig 2.1.2 Dimensions of Caracalla (DeLaine)

The Romans applied various natural materials in their design. The interior of the baths were made luxurious, which required natural construction materials like marble. With the strong influence of the empire, different types of marble were delivered from their places of origin to the empire. Many quarry states were owned by the Romans and supplied abundantly in the empire, delivered from Greece and Egypt or obtained from minor Asia (DeLaine 136).

ii. Cost of Construction

As one of the greatest baths in the Roman Empire, Caracalla was built based on a significant investment from the Roman emperor, including labor and economic investments. It created job opportunities for residents and extra income for property owners. The Baths of Caracalla mobilized many people directly involved in the construction process, making it one of the costliest architectures in the Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire directly involved a large quantity of labor in construction. Based on some historians’ accounts, about 10,000 men were involved in the whole project (DeLaine 350). The estimation found that 6000 laborers were directly involved in the construction of Caracalla (DeLaine 349), majority of them were unskilled and semi-skilled laborers.

One of the most important materials in Roman architecture—brick—was mainly used in the construction of Caracalla. As such, around 220 laborers were involved in the brick production (DeLaine 350). Other workers were engaging in more “artistic” jobs. They did not only play a major role in constructing the interior of the baths but also in the aesthetic and design works.

Many other workers from different fields were indirectly involved to support the whole project. The total number of workers could reach 20,000 to 30,000 (DeLaine 355). Unlike workers directly involved in the construction, these groups of workers could hardly be confirmed, though they played an important role in supporting construction works.

The baths of Caracalla cost significantly. The price of each section of production was presumed by converting to the production of wheat, which is KM. By estimation, the Roman empire had cost about 11 million KM of wheat in over 6 years (DeLaine 368). However, it might exclude the expenses of other items relating to the construction, the ornament laborers, and the brick and lime workers (DeLaine 370). This reflects the power of the Roman emperor, reminding the later viewers that a formidable empire existed in Apennine Peninsula, which attained remarkable achievements in world architectural history.

iii. Social Influences in Caracalla

The Roman society had an enthusiasm for bathing. It was not only hygienic purposes but also to socialize, relax, and bask under the desirable power of the empire. Especially with the backing of the Roman emperor, the trend of bathing spread among the Roman citizens and occupied a large portion of time in their lives. Thus, the baths created a significant social impact.

As one of the large-scale public facilities, the baths were mainly provided for the enjoyment of the citizens. Many of them usually stayed there for the whole day. With the gathering of large groups, various activities were also held nearby. Even though they spent most of the time bathing, they also went to the palestrae to do some exercises or to the library where they could spend time reading.

The Romans also developed the sequence of bathing. Before the baths, they spent time engaging in light exercises in the palestrae. After that, they would enter each bath according to the temperature of the water. They started from the frigidarium to the caldarium respectively (Socializing at the Baths 360). Interestingly, the sudatorium or the vaulted sweating-room was optional for the Romans.

The best time for bathing was from the early to mid-afternoon, approximately 1 o’clock to 4 o’clock (Socializing at the Baths 366). After that, they would go for the feast to socialize, make friends, and establish a network of relationships. The bath was also used to meet guests and play ball games. These endowed the social attribute of the Roman baths.

Although the slaves did not usually appear in the baths, the designer of Caracalla had reserved a space for the slaves to change their clothes. Because of the public attribute of Roman baths, the slaves were required by their hosts to clear the way for them when walking in the water (Socializing at the Baths 361). The Roman baths rarely allowed slaves to step in, however, some exceptions were made through negotiation between hosts and slave owners.

Many activities were held in or around the baths used for patrons to be entertained. Some of them, for instance, the athletic contests, were held near by. This is illustrated by the mosaic painting in the baths, which showed that competitions were held for extra entertainment. Some of the famous mosaic descriptions found in Caracalla depicted related actions, such as clapping their hands to cheer for victory (Socializing at the Baths 367).

While many “extra” activities that are held inside or nearby the baths are held in the afternoon, the Romans usually planned the bathing activity for the whole day. It explained why they considered bathing as one of the most important activities in their lives.

III. Chinese Teahouse

i. Design Explanation

Chinese teahouses were established in cities and towns by common folks. It was accompanied by the development of the food industry, which started during the Tang dynasty. These teahouses were constructed based on Chinese traditional architectural styles. They exhibited proper physical structures and had special materials that were extraordinarily different from Western architecture.  

The traditional architecture in China was mainly supported by the construction of pillars blending with the wall, creating the effect of “the house would not fall even when the walls are broken” (Sha 26). The walls presented between every two pillars were not simply serving the role of bearing the weight but also serving to shield. Like other Chinese traditional architectures, the Chinese teahouse has greatly applied mortise and tenon joints in the construction (Wang 47).

As one of the most important components in Chinese traditional architecture, wood was widely used in teahouse construction. In southern China, the materials for constructing the frame of the building are mainly phoebe, cypress, cedarwood, and, sometimes pine (Sen and Enwei and Yanguang 138). The constructors selected woods that can bear a large force yet still workable with certain resiliency.

Many Chinese traditional teahouses have incorporated courtyards in the middle of the structure. The courtyard mainly serves for natural lighting, ventilation, adjusting microclimate, and draining away the water (Li and Zhang). The designers connected the halls and side rooms by constructing corridors to surround the courtyard in the center. The hall in the front was mainly used as a place to receive guests. The hall is easily identifiable because of its volume, being elaborately decorated and the side rooms retaining the same height and containing multiple floors (Wang 55). In doing so, patrons can easily find the central courtyard.

ii. Location and Volume Comparison

Chinese teahouses are established in urban areas, where people can have better access to nearby commercial activities. With the improvement of the food industry over time, the teahouses gradually emerged in large cities, such as Bianliang, as the capital city of the Northern Song dynasty, and were called “Cha Si” (Liu 31).

The locations of teahouses were also corresponding to cultural separation. This phenomenon was exceptionally highlighted in the Qing dynasty. For instance, in Peking, China, the teahouses were mainly distributed in the southern part of the city where the Han people were mainly living in. Peking had 87 teahouses in total, but over 60% of them were located in the Exterior West district (Chengzhong 72).

Fig 3.1 Distribution of teahouse in Peking (Chengzhong 74)

Many Chinese teahouses have remained on small scales, owing to the fact that they were owned by the citizens. For instance, the whole scale of Huguang Guild Hall was about 4700 square meters, which includes the later construction in the 1830s (Huang 101). Over a long time in history, the owners of the teahouses have limited investments due to relatively lower income.

Fig 3.2 Huguang Guild Hall scale on the map

Chinese teahouses were exceptionally inexpensive, even some of teahouses in Peking. Since many teahouses were modified based on the design of the Chinese residences, they were mainly treated the same as the residences by the Ministry of Works in feudal China. For instance, a house that occupied half of the acre in 1718 could be sold for 60 taels of silver. The teahouses at that time followed this scale, which could also support in a teahouse’s survival.

iii. History and Social Feature

As one of the most established food cultures around the world, the tea culture in China has been closely linked with the development of the teahouses. The tradition of tea selling could be traced back to the Han Dynasty when people could buy tea drinks on the street. However, street tea-selling was not considered a high-brow consumption, which explains why early teahouses mostly served people of lower social status.

In the Tang dynasty, when tea drinking became widespread and popular among Chinese folks, came the proliferation development of the industry and commerce. In the Song dynasty, with a stable political and social environment, the number of teahouses began to increase. Nevertheless, from scholars and officials’’ views, the teahouses in the Song dynasty were vulgar places (Yang and Wu 159). After the establishment of the South Song dynasty, some scholars began to visit the teahouses to show their style as being uninhibited (Yang and Wu 159). It was the first time when teahouses  started to serve the scholars in ancient Chinese.

The activities in Chinese teahouses began to develop in the Song dynasty. As a way to attract customers, the teahouses held performances and events. Some activities were called “Xian Ge”, which can be accomplished in two ways: one is to hire courtesans to attract patrons, and another is for  performers to perform inside the teahouse (Liu 29). Another popular activity is the staging of plays.

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, teahouses became a staple in society, serving people of different social statuses, from normal citizens to government officers. These teahouses became the mainstream of food industry consumption in Nanjing, a prosperous city of the Ming dynasty (Cai 64). It indicated the acceptance of teahouses by Chinese citizens.

Especially in the Qing dynasty, the teahouses had better facilities owing to how they evolved not only to satisfy the physical requirement of citizens, but also spiritual attributes. Besides, in the late Qing where there was an explosion of the number of teahouses in China, many of them were considered “Qing teahouses”, which were mainly small in scale, rarely providing the service of food (Liu 119). These teahouses sometimes hired storytellers, which recounted stories from famous Chinese novels, with certain artistic refinements (Liu 119). These teahouses were called “book teahouses.”

There were several types of customers who frequented teahouses: people with plenty of leisure time and a lot of money (a large portion of them were from noble families), merchants who traveled in various places, and people who were willing to resolve disputes among the citizens (Liu 120). All of which share one common reason for going: to socialize. Teahouse, under this circumstance, is illustrating the typical life in ancient China.

Toward the end of the Qing dynasty, as Western influence infused its way into the tea culture, some teahouses tended to be Westernized (Liu 88). It signaled a time when the traditional teahouse culture began to diminish. In the end, teahouses that flourished in ancient China vanished in the long river of history.

IV. Discussion and Comparison

As public spaces in these both the Roman Empire and ancient China, baths and teahouses were built influenced by the needs of the local society. Under the Roman emperor’s control, baths were mainly under the Roman government’s control and were likely to be built on a large scale. This mode was adopted by many countries in terms of public infrastructures. The Bath of Caracalla was a typical Roman bath, which represented the model of operation and public space construction in the Roman Empire.

The Chinese teahouse, on the other hand, were mainly controlled by individual operators. These folks were aiming for commercial success. The Chinese government rarely interfered with the construction of these public spaces, though some of the exterior factors were influenced by cultural norms. In the Song dynasty, industry and commerce began to flourish, relating to the economic development of the Song dynasty. In Ming and Qing dynasties, nobles and local officers supported the teahouse industry economically. Thus, although the teahouses were established by common folks, the government provided significant support to the teahouse industry.

The design of the Roman baths and the Chinese teahouses were was based on the cultures that they belonged in. As influenced by the Greek culture, the baths mainly applied the layout with the ratio involving the e √2-1 and √2 2 individually as close to the diagonal of the square. This makes the whole layout looks structured and planned. The design of the baths strictly followed the Roman style, which is depicted by the design of the arch. The Romans applied certain available materials based on their needs, purpose, and physical properties. Meanwhile, the teahouses followed the layout of traditional Chinese houses, filled with oriental-inspired designs. These structures may be quite different in the overall design and materials used, they follow architectural traditions and principlese in these two regions.

The Roman bath and Chinese teahouse are both considered a place for socialization. Information from all aspects of society sprouted and came from these places. In the Roman baths, people from all of different social statuses gathered, socialized, and spent most of their spare time. As the common space in China, teahouses gradually became the hub of information. The owners and the servers, as well as the patrons, interacted with one another and established social relationships.

Many activities were held in these public spaces for different purposes. The Roman baths provided libraries and gymnasiums that elevated the bathing experience of citizens. Athletic competitions were also held as extra enjoyment. The Chinese teahouses offered the same service to patrons. In addition to tea drinking, they also provided Xian Ge, street performances, storytellers, and plays. These activities were offered to attract customers and enhance the experience.

V. Conclusion

The Roman baths and Chinese teahouses shared similar fates, which reflect the rise and fall of ancient civilizations. The Roman baths reached their glorious age based on the assets that the Romans amassed during the course of the empire’s expansion, which could support the leisurely lifestyle of the Romans. As they had used up the properties obtained from their exploits, the baths had diminished corresponding with the power of the Roman empire. Similarly, the Chinese teahouses prospered from the Song Dynasty to the middle of the Qing Dynasty, with support from the citizens, scholars, officers, and nobles. But they gradually diminished toward the late Qing dynasty, ultimately ending with the fall of the ancient Chinese agricultural era.

The baths and teahouses both influenced the lifestyle of the local citizens, while these architectures were constructed based on local culture. These sites provided a common service for each patron, coupled with additional activities. They were constructed based on the local culture, such that the Roman baths were constructed because of the emphasis on the human body being cleansed by the water, and the teahouses were constructed based on the tea culture attributes in East Asia. Both of them are significant in their cultural circles.

The Roman baths disappeared in the 4th century, with the invasion of Vandals, environmental issues, and decreased funding from the emperor and wealthy Romans. Similarly, the invasion of Western countries and the social tide of the revolution led to the demise of the ancient teahouses in the middle of the 20th century. They both followed similar historical routes and emergence in the modern era. The culture of Roman baths reappeared as modern public baths. However, these baths were established by folks and were small in scale with relatively high expenses. Meanwhile, the Chinese teahouses gradually became places similar to the cafés we know today. They are mainly used as a place for relaxation and meeting point for social or professional interactions.

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