Introduction:

Did the Soweto Uprising really cause the end of Bantu Education? Soweto was one of many instances of opposition to apartheid education, and perhaps the most important, however, not the only contributing factor. Bantu Education, the rigid social and racial hierarchy of segregation established under South African law from 1948-1994, was one institutional aspect of the apartheid.When the Afrikaner Nationalist Party was voted into power in 1948, a system of passes was put into place via the 1952 Pass Laws Act, creating an official basis for segregation and the apartheid regime. South African people were legally divided into four racial groups - white, coloured, Indian, and African - by the Population Registration Act of 1950 in order to support the government's policy of segregation. The lives of South Africans became separated based on these groupings, including schooling, transportation, and living spaces. Africans were not thought of as South African but as citizens of a homeland, which were nature reserves transformed into units of land that were crowded, impoverished, lacked resources, and had high rates of criminal behavior. African people were forced to carry a pass, which disallowed them from moving from city to city, and had legally segregated education systems. In 1953, the Bantu Education Act assembled a system of inferior education for black students, and was designed to create an unskilled and uneducated workforce of manual laborers. However, despite relentless segregation from the government, resistance to the apartheid did exist. The Soweto Uprising on June 16, 1976 was led by black school students, and consisted of a series of protests against the use of the Afrikaans language as the medium of instruction in Soweto high schools. Additionally, the African National Congress and Nelson Mandela made significant progressions towards defiance and fighting for equal rights, and activists like Steve Biko created mass movements such as the Black Consciousness movement in order to support equality between races and encourage resistance from others. For my research paper, I will be investigating the extent to which the Soweto Uprising contributed to the end of Bantu Education. In other words, did the Soweto Uprising have the largest impact on the government’s decision to end Bantu Education, or were there other more significant factors at play? The cause of the end of Bantu Education is important because it upheld one of the main sectors of separation between races - segregated education systems. The abolishment of Bantu Education set the stage for other necessary changes to be made, and enormously contributed to the fight for equality in South Africa. Fueled by opposition to the Bantu Education system itself, mass movements, activism and social justice organizations initiated a newfound black identity, ultimately leading to the demise of Bantu Education in 1980. 

Source Review: 

Some scholars conclude that the Soweto Uprising did not directly cause the collapse of Bantu Education in South Africa and that it did not, in fact, change government policy in general. In the article “South Africa After Soweto,” author Ruth Buttersworth assesses the rate of development in South Africa following the Soweto Uprising in three specific areas: economy, behavior of white electorate, and political change. They claim that there was a lack of policy change after the Soweto Uprising, and imply that the diminishment of Bantu Education did not result directly from it. Their opinion on economic advances is that “South Africa has yet to control inflation” and they mention “unemployment rising,” implying their belief that the Soweto Uprising has been ultimately ineffective at instituting necessary economic reform, and additionally asserts that the white electorate are ‘"rolling with the punches," and that they assess and respond to events as they come. Buttersworth relays that their “conclusion from an analysis of events since (Soweto) is that there is little evidence to suggest that the South African Government proposes any adaption of the current system,” stating their belief that little political change has resulted from the event after the uprising and that there is no evidence of change in government policy. Butterworth’s opinion that Soweto did not cause policy change insinuates that it was not the cause of the end of Bantu Education.

Other scholars argue that the Soweto Uprising was the sole factor that caused the banning of Bantu Education. For instance, in “After Soweto: A Response,” Ruth First argues that the Soweto Uprising caused the “virtual collapse” of Bantu Education. In discussing the effects of Soweto, they say that “their struggles have continued into 1977 and 1978; they have caused the virtual collapse of secondary Bantu education.” By describing the Soweto Uprising as the “virtual collapse” of Bantu Education, the author outrightly suggests that the uprising was the sole reason for the demise of segregated education systems. 

The majority of the scholars who argue over the cause of the collapse of Bantu Education in South Africa propose a multitude of contributing reasons. Ivan Raymond Wills partly agrees in his “The History of Bantu Education: 1948-1994,” that the Soweto Uprising had a major part in the fall of Bantu Education, yet, also argues that other reasons may have come into play. He describes multiple influences that changed education in South Africa, including outspoken and intelligent men and women who created forms of resistance like the Black Consciousness Movement, Black People’s Convention and the establishment of the Black Allied Workers’ Union (BAWU). Yeyedwa Zungu agrees with Wills’ belief that a spectrum of influences contributed to the downfall of Bantu Education and recognizes the demonstrations that were “initiated and manned by students at primary and secondary levels,” along with the “political and professional African organizations” that “campaigned strongly against Bantu Education” as additional causes. He does, however, argue that this was probably not effective enough to directly change Bantu Education. 

Argument: 

The Black Consciousness Movement indirectly aided the fight against the Bantu Education system because it incentivised resistance and protests such as the Soweto Uprising. Black South African activist Steve Biko founded the Black Consciousness Movement in 1968 in an attempt to raise black self-awareness and empower black students and teachers. The movement spread through South Africa, gaining favor amongst the people and encouraging them to engage in resistance and unite against the apartheid regime. This widespread resistance led to protests that eventually motivated political change. Wills supports this in his argument stating that the “leaders of the Black Consciousness Movement like Biko, Pityana and Nengwekula became the giants of the decade,” which implies the significant influence this movement had over Bantu Education systems and other institutions at the time. He also notes that propaganda such as “slogans and catchphrases filtered down to inspire the massive army of school children which had been created by the institutions of Bantu Education,” leading them to disagree with the apartheid policy of Bantu Education and form mass resistance. Propaganda spread the word of Black Consciousness, furthering the acceptance of the ideologies that Black Consciousness promoted. Wills claims that as more people came to support Black Consciousness, it “developed as a broad social movement, embracing most closely the younger members of the black middle class.” Black Consciousness targeted the youth, essentially establishing defiance amongst the group most affected by Bantu Education. Therefore it is unsurprising that the fight for equality in the school systems was popular amongst Black Consciousness activists. The social movement advertised through propaganda promoted anti apartheid legislation and caused protests that stimulated political change, ultimately contributing to the demise of Bantu Education. 

Youth opposition and organizations such the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS) and South African Students’ Organization (SASO)  that focused on resolving the black community’s issues helped form a nationally empowered black identity, solidifying a large population of self-aware black South Africans who protested Bantu Education. At first, Biko became involved in NUSAS, a mutiracial organization for students that historically supported equality in education. He eventually strayed away from this union, creating his own all-Black SASO after coming to the conclusion that black South Africans deserved for society to be restructured around the Black majority’s culture. Biko became president of SASO the following year, with the goal of creating a common identity amongst black South Africans that helped them to acknowledge their inherent self worth and dignity. The organization developed a literacy program and other projects targeting not only black students’ problems, but also addressed other matters such as health issues. Zungu discusses the “political and professional African organizations” that focused deliberately on issues within the black community and mostly fought against Bantu education. He recognizes these organizations as effective at influencing policy change regarding education, implying that the Soweto Uprising was not the only factor of its demise. By encouraging the empowerment of black men and women through his Black Consciousness movement and SASO, Biko made a strong foundation of dignified people with a common ambition. These people indirectly fought against the apartheid and Bantu Education  by helping their own communities. 

The newfound strong black identity created by the Black Consciousness Movement incited protests and the creation of social justice organizations which solidified resistance against Bantu Education. The Black People’s Convention was an “umbrella organization” of the Black Consciousness movement that spread anti apartheid messages, and group protests such as the Pro Frelimo rally brought these values to life. When considering the progression of education for black South Africans during the time of Bantu Education, Figure 1 and 2 of Duncan Thomas’ “Education Across Generations in South Africa,” shows the mean years of education by year of birth for both men and women. Starting in the 1920s, as the year approached the late 1900s (the end of Bantu Education), the mean number of years of education of black people increased from one to five years. (Exhibit 1) Although this number increased, it mirrored the policy of Bantu Education in that the number of years that black people were educated never approached equality to the mean years of education for white people (the mean education for white people started at eight years and ended at nine years). Even though equality was never reached, people noticed progressions in education, reflecting progress within the black community and motivating people to continue to pursue change. Another influence of Black Consciousness was the Black Community Programmes created in 1972, aimed to respond to specific needs of the black community through a broad range of products such as publications, research, health centers, a trust fund and a factory. Similarly to Black Consciousness, the Black Community Programmes helped the black community create its own sense of power and become more politically conscious. In addition, unions for workers such as the Black Allied Workers Union, a national trade union federation built off the SASO initiative, popped up and followed the narrative of advocacy for equality of black South Africans. These new workers unions and community programmes provided support to the mission of Black Consciousness, furthering the progress made to strengthen the new black identity and also halt Bantu Education. 

Another mass movement, the African National Congress (ANC), led by Nelson Mandela, actively opposed the apartheid and Bantu Education in court and encouraged boycotts to support this cause. The ANC formed as a movement in South Africa in 1912 and became a political party in 1990, and its primary goal was to unite Africans and help defend their freedom and rights. By 1953, ANC members openly disputed the Bantu Education Act in court, finding countless issues with the law, and in 1954, Congressmen agreed to oppose Bantu Education during the 42nd Annual Conference of the ANC. African parents were directed by ANC members to boycott on April 1st via withdrawing their children from school, with a goal of revoking Bantu Education and then ultimately making an alternative. To help act on this goal, ANC volunteers hosted meetings and prayer gatherings in the morning on April 23, and then paraded to a total of 10 schools, declaring the boycott and closing each school. Author Jennifer Davis provides insight on the school boycotts, describing the “parent protests; hundreds of teachers were thrown out of jobs for joining and fighting against it,” revealing that in addition to students, the involvement of parents and teachers was incited by the ANC. Not only were students and youth fighting for their rights, but the ANC also sparked participation from middle aged people, accomplishing a united national black identity. The heavy involvement in boycotts from people of different ages and occupations directly opposing the Bantu Education Act supports the idea that the ANC and its resistance had major influence on the end of Bantu Education. 

Mandela and the ANC-led resistance also accelerated the downfall of Bantu Education because he openly spoke out against it and was even punished for his opposition. Mandela was president of the ANC from 1991-1997, after the end of Bantu Education. While Bantu Education was still enacted, Mandela attempted to launch an armed struggle against South Africa’s apartheid laws, sending him to jail from 1956-1990. Although his armed struggle failed, Mandela’s struggle became the role model for other future forms of opposition against Bantu Education system and the apartheid regime as a whole. People were encouraged by his attempt and continued to champion his cause even after his arrest in 1956. Mandela continued to protest inequality even after his jail time when Bantu Education had officially ended, ultimately arguing that the education crisis had continued to deepen and that Soweto was not effective enough, although it may have had an effect on banning of Bantu Education. On the 17th anniversary of the 1976 Soweto Uprising in 1993, Mandela gave a speech at the Orlando Stadium in Soweto, South Africa about the uprising. He revealed  his worries about progression in education after Bantu Education had ended, saying to the crowd, “the causes of the Soweto uprisings continue to be with us. The education crisis has in the last 17 years continued to deepen.” His opinion that the education crisis has gotten worse coincides with Buttersworth’s claim that there was little policy change after Soweto, implying that the uprising had less of an effect on the end of Bantu Education than some may think. Soweto having less of a direct effect on policy change leaves room for other reasons that may have caused it, suggesting Mandela’s belief that other events contributed to the end of Bantu Education. Mandela himself was not only adamant about social justice, but also had a major effect on people’s opinions and gaining their support in opposition. Individuals like Mandela led many people to believe in his anti-apartheid cause through his self - sacrificial actions that resulted in his arrest, and urged other people to continue to fight for his cause. Mandela agreed that a variety of reasons existed for the banning of Bantu Education, and he himself influenced it by supporting the national black identity and encouraging people to follow in his footsteps of resistance.

The Soweto Uprising was one of a collection of factors that caused Bantu Education to end because afterwards the government was never able to fully recover or gain back full control. The Soweto Uprising was a series of demonstrations in 1976 speaking out against apartheid education, and was led by black school children. The protest unfortunately led up to extreme violence, police firing at the students, and around 1000 lives were lost as countless people were injured. Dire consequences came upon the apartheid government, disallowing full control and never returning to its prior state. People were enraged by the government response to the protests, exposing the government and forcing it to create changes such as terminating the Bantu Education Act in 1980. To modify the education system in an attempt to keep the peace, the Education and Training Act of 1979 was put in its place, essentially supporting the establishment and upkeep of integrated school systems. People quieted down after this obvious improvement, and later the South African Schools Act 84 of 1996 solidified a uniform system for governing, organizing and funding schools. It also amended and repealed specific laws regarding schooling, furthering the overall progress in the South African education system. Ultimately, the Soweto Uprising influenced the end of Bantu Edcuation because of the disruption made on society that contributed to resistance overall and strengthened the black community’s unity against the apartheid and Bantu Education. 

Conclusion:

Mass movements, activism and social justice organizations all contributed to the formation of a new black identity in South Africa ultimately led to its end in 1980. After the public shock that resulted from the violence of the Soweto Uprising, the government was unable to regain the same control, which impacted the stop of Bantu Education. In addition to Soweto’s influence, individual activists such as Steve Biko and Nelson Mandela advocated against the apartheid regime and organized movements such as Black Consciousness, the ANC, and South African Students Organization that promoted the formation of a strong black identity and sparked social activism from the people. Social activism indirectly aided the fight against the apartheid education system because it fueled resistance and protests such as the Soweto Uprising. It also piqued organizations that focused on resolving the black community’s issues, helped form a national empowered black identity, overall creating a large population of self-aware black South Africans who demanded equality and ultimately sparked the demise of Bantu Education. Similarly to South Africa, black Americans in the 1900s also opposed segregation through protests such as the Montgomery bus boycott against segregated transportation (1955-1956), the Greensboro sit-ins against segregated restaurants (1960), and Children’s Crusade (1965) against segregated education, to name just a few. Although segregation legally ended in America in 1964, and 40 years later in South Africa in 1994, racial discrimination and other remnants of segregation still exist in both places today. As Mandela suggested, the education crisis continued to deepen regardless of the official end of Bantu Education, insinuating the harsh reality that its legal end did not fully diminish the negative and lasting effects on black South Africans. 

Appendix:

Exhibit 1

Bibliography: 

Butterworth, Ruth. “South Africa After Soweto.” New Zealand International Review 3, no. 1 (1978): 26–28. jstor.org/stable/45232857.

First, Ruth. “After Soweto: A Response.” Review of African Political Economy, no. 11 (1978): 93–100. jstor.org/stable/3997968.

Wills, Ivan. “The History of Bantu Education: 1948-1994.” Doctor of Philosophy, (2011): 131-140. acuresearchbank.acu.edu.au/download/f6bb666ae24a99af27caf82f697d4328b132299cec03800214325a88e393c081/2003673/Wills_2011_The_history_of_Bantu_education.pdf

Zungu, Yeyedwa. “The Education for Africans in South Africa.” The Journal of Negro Education 46, no. 3 (1977): 202–18. doi.org/10.2307/2966768.

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Thomas, Duncan. “Education Across Generations in South Africa.” The American Economic Review 86, no. 2 (1996): 330–34. jstor.org/stable/2118147.

Thomas, Duncan. “Mean Years of Education by Year of Birth: Males.” In Duncan Thomas, “Education Across Generations in South Africa,” The American Economic Review 86, no. 2 (1996): 331. jstor.org/stable/2118147.

Thomas, Duncan. “Mean Years of Education by Year of Birth: Females.” In Duncan Thomas, “Education Across Generations in South Africa,” The American Economic Review 86, no. 2 (1996): 332. jstor.org/stable/2118147.

Davis, Jennifer. “SOWETO 1976 - The Struggle Against Apartheid,” July 1, 1976. jstor.org/stable/al.sff.document.af000172.

Mandela, Nelson. “Statement of the President of the African National Congress, Nelson R Mandela, on the 17th Anniversary of the 1976 student uprising” Speech, Orlando Stadium, Soweto, South Africa, June 16, 1993. Nelson Mandela Foundation. db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS143